What are the Difficulties that Chinese Students have in Academic Writing
What are the Difficulties that Chinese Students have in Academic Writing?
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Methodology Chapter
Introduction
This chapter will focus on the methodology utilized to assess the aim of the study. In particular, it explores the procedures applied to examine the difficulties that Chinese students have in academic writing. To quote from Vogt (2011), methodology refers to a theory of how research should be undertaken and what the philosophical assumption research is based on and the implications of the methods adopted (Vogt 2011). This methodology will outline methods, research designs and sample techniques in which the researcher proposes to use in the research. Moreover, the chapter discusses and explains the design of the research, which was applied while obtaining the data that was analysed in the research (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). Other topics discussed in this chapter include, research purpose, sampling size, sampling techniques, data collection procedures, pre-testing, inclusion and exclusion criteria, validity and reliability, and ethical considerations.
Research purpose
Researchers can apply various ways when conducting a study. Mostly, studies are categorized based on the prior skills, knowledge and expertise of the researcher regarding the topic of study. However, major categories of the research include exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies (Creswell 2013). In particular, descriptive research, the aim of the study is to establish a description of different phenomenon or condition, which is related to persons, circumstances or on-going events. In addition, the aim of this kind of study is to formulate an imperial generalization of the findings (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). In this regard, theories are more likely to be developed from these imperial generalizations.
Furthermore, descriptive studies are normally conducted in case the investigator only possesses adequate skills and knowledge concerning the problem under investigations (Bernard and Bernard 2012). Similarly, such researches are carried when there are no other aims to examine the association between the causes and impacts of variables. Furthermore, descriptive research is normally applicable when secondary information is included in researching a few factors of the issues under study (Vogt 2011). On the other hand, exploratory research is conducted in cases the researcher intends to explore some factors in the environment in terms of specific aspects of research.
The major purpose of this type of research is to form concepts that are suggestive. In the majority of cases, exploratory research is utilized in case the investigator lacks sufficient knowledge concerning a particular issue (Denscombe 2014). In addition, this kind of research is utilized when the available information is out-dated. According to Robson (2011), the best method to apply in this study when collecting data is through the interviews. Another category of research purpose is explanatory research. The major purpose of this research is to formulate a solid theory that can be utilized in describing scientific generalizations (Robson 2011). Therefore, investigators using this kind of research formulates hypothesis, which are subjected to scientific testing. Crano, Brewer and Lac (2014) argued that a study could be described as an explanatory research if it only focuses on explaining the cause-effect association. In this case, it describes what precise aspects generate specific impacts. More significantly, this kind of study explains how the cause and effects are connected. In addition, a single variable is applied to research the effects and consequences on other variables (Vogt 2011). Most notably, explanatory study can be conducted through either or both primary or secondary data.
For the purpose of study questions of this research, it is evident that this is an explanatory and at the time explanatory. The study is explanatory since the investigator attempted to examine the difficulties that Chinese students face in academic writings (Punch 2013). Additionally, the study is characterized by two variables: independent variables such as writing, speaking, socio-cultural background, and thinking while dependent variables such as styles, coherent arguments, vocabulary and grammar usage, analytical skills, clarity of information and styles and structure writing (Vogt 2011). The study is exploratory simply because it tends to explore the challenges and difficulties. In addition, the study is intended for making crucial decisions about teaching and learning profession for formulating an effective program to help the Chinese students (Bernard and Bernard 2012).
Research design
According to Hesse-Biber and Johnson eds., (2015) research design is very important in the study because it offers a comprehensive framework for gathering and formulation of data as it is expected in a research. The choice of study methodology plays a critical role in formulating appropriate strategies to collect data from the study participants (Hesse-Biber and Johnson eds. 2015). In this study, the researcher utilized a cross-sectional study design where data was gathered via both quantitative and qualitative methods (Denscombe 2014). A cross-sectional study involves the study of the entire population or a sample, which acts as the true representative of the whole population.
The study included two universities in the UK out of which Chinese students were interviewed. Ninety students were interviewed with each university presenting 45 samples in each case (Vogt 2011). The data were then gathered from the selected samples to assist in responding to study research questions of interests. The data collected in cross-sectional study design reflect only the circumstance during a certain point when the research was conducted (Tuckman and Harper 2012). Therefore, the information cannot be applied to validate what occurred thereafter. In this respect, the research was only conducted at a certain period without any follow-up afterwards (Robson 2011). The cross-sectional study design was deemed appropriate for this study because it directly examines the difficulties that Chinese students face in academic writing. The major benefits of this design are that it normally consumes less time and it is cheaper (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). The researcher also developed structured questionnaires, which were used to acquire required data from the Chinese students in UK universities.
Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Quantitative method involves a study where items are counted, data analysed in a statistical manner. Additionally, the results are quoted in a numerical format. Approaches of quantitative research methodology normally integrate experimental studies, descriptive studies, quasi-experimental studies and descriptive studies (Babbie 2015). Moreover, quantitative research methodology normally seeks for an explanation and estimates of the study results, which will be, generalized (Punch 2013). Qualitative research was used in this study because the purpose was to describe and narrate the experiences of Chinese students before making a conclusion. Therefore, through qualitative method, the researcher had a chance of investigating their experiences into some details related to difficulties of the Chinese students in academic writing.
According to Saunders (2011), qualitative method provides the investigator with a special opportunity to focus on the difficulties to some deeper depth utilizing a varied number of lenses (Saunders 2011). Since the study emphasized on what were the difficulties that Chinese students had in academic writing, following a naturalistic approach enabled the researcher to assess the barriers in their learning institutions. The methods such as focus group discussion allowed the investigator to listen to the voices of the study respondents on how they share their opinions regarding the study topic (Silverman ed. 2016). Qualitative type of research is very important because it facilitates understanding of the beliefs of an individual, which presents his/her actions and behaviours. With regards to such, it was found crucial to understand the difficulties faced by the Chinese students due to the urgent need to recommend viable measures to help them (Denscombe 2014).
Methods of data collection
Both qualitative and quantitative data was obtained during this study. Quantitative data were acquired via administration of structured questionnaires to Chinese students. On the other hand, qualitative data were collected through in-depth interviews (Robson 2011). The researcher did not rely on a single source of data but instead combined different data sources in order to make precise and accurate conclusions on the study objectives. In the process of conducting the interviews, the researchers visited two Universities in the UK (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). At this point, the researcher conducted seven interviews with lecturers and other members of teaching fraternity.
More specifically, the researcher utilized face-to-face interviews with lecturers and tutors. The interviews provided a chance for the investigator to focus on both open-ended and close-ended questions (Vogt 2011). The open-ended questions offered a chance to acquire insights, views and perceptions of the interviewees on the difficulties that Chinese students experience in academic writing. Moreover, close-ended interviews concentrated on confirming facts. The researcher selected interviews unlike other methods such as questionnaire because they facilitate verbal exchange between the interviewer and interviewee (Babbie 2015).
Most importantly, interviews encourage the interviewees to speak more freely and enable easy response (Creswell 2013). Most importantly, since interviews require the interviewer to establish rapport with interviewees, it helps to develop trust and relational trust that is essential between participants (Punch 2013). The face-to-face interview was important for this research because it enabled to gain depth of difficulties that Chinese students had in academic writing.
The research also focused on acquiring an understanding and insights which other methods such as questionnaires could not (Vogt 2011). Furthermore, the researcher engaged in a focussed group discussion with lecturers and other senior academic experts within the Universities. The main aim of this type of meetings was to facilitate provision of more ideas and opinions as well as experiences on difficulties that Chinese students experience in academic writing in the UK (Bernard and Bernard 2012). The investigator played an inactive role whose aim was only to moderate the discussions. Similarly, the researcher was responsible for putting forward leading questions but did not actively contribute during the discussions (Denscombe 2014).
Senior lecturers also assisted in focusing more on understanding the major challenges that Chinese students are likely to experience in the UK, for instance, if the Chinese academic culture affected the use of analytical skills, vocabulary and grammar use and reasonable arguments (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). Moreover, interviews helped the researcher to establish cordial and free interactions with the participants, which played a significant role in enabling detailed discussions. The questionnaire was divided into different sections. The first section included demographic data such as age, sex, level of study among others (Vogt 2011). The second sections encompassed questions, which were intended to identify data on difficulties that Chinese students experienced in academic writing (Hesse-Biber and Johnson eds. 2015).
Pre-test was conducted to ensure clarity of the questionnaires. It also ensured that questions were precise for accurate collection of required information for the study (Robson 2011). The main reason why the researcher utilized open-ended questions in the collection of data is that they were deemed appropriate because they allowed the interviewees to have freedom when answering the questions based on their own understanding. In other words, this promoted comprehensive answers for evaluation (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014).
About ninety students from different levels of academic learning filled the questionnaires. Some of the major benefits of using questionnaires were: it offered a chance to safeguard the confidentiality of the study participants as well as assisted them to effectively express their opinions, views and conviction without any pressures (Bernard and Bernard 2012). Additionally, it also assisted the researchers to quantify the findings and results.
A systematic review of secondary data was also established in this research. The main fact behind this strategy is to assist in defining certain economic terms and meanings (Silverman ed. 2016). Through the search strategy, especially via academic journals, newspapers and articles, challenges facing Chinese students in academic writing were reviewed. More significantly, books played a huge role in defining the meanings of crucial terms in this study (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). Academic materials that addressed in Chinese academic writing in general and its relation to difficulties facing their students were consulted.
Furthermore, the researcher concentrated on academic books in order to gain better understanding on theoretical aspects of Chinese academic writings (Coolican 2014). Academic newspapers and magazines were also important sources of data, which helped in understanding the pragmatic sides related to academic writing among the Chinese students (Vogt 2011). Published academic information related to the topic helped in quantifying the challenges that Chinese students face in their academic work.
Sampling procedures for data collection
The samples in this study were randomly selected. Ninety Chinese students from two Universities in the UK were selected to participate in the study. All Chinese students in the Universities formed the sampling frame for the study out of which 90 were chosen as study participants. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were utilized in the process of sampling (Punch 2013). For instance, the study only included Chinese students who were studying in the UK at the time of the research. In addition, these Chinese students must be studying the two Universities by the time the study was being conducted.
On the other hand, the study excluded students who were not Chinese. Similarly, Chinese students who were not studying in the two Universities were also excluded (Coolican 2014). More significantly, the study also excluded UK Universities that had not admitted Chinese students in their institutions. Lastly, Chinese students that failed to cooperate freely with the researchers were excluded from the study (Vogt 2011). Firstly, all Chinese students were randomly sampled in order to give all individuals an equal chance to participate in the study. Convenience sampling was also conducted to choose study respondents such as Senior lecturers, lecturers and tutors in the Universities (Robson 2011). This was aimed at ensuring that only competent respondents, especially those who understood the difficulties Chinese students face in academic writing were engaged in this study.
Purpose sampling was also undertaken to ensure that both the two Universities selected for the study admitted Chinese students in their courses (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). Moreover, a five-point scale was used in some instances to determine the responses. In this respect, respondents were offered choice questions with options being: Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree with regard to how certain aspects of Chinese students affected their academic writing leading to difficulties. Other questions needed a Yes or No answer (Denscombe 2014). Ninety-five questionnaires were distributed, but only ninety were returned filled. In this study, data were collected from both male and female Chinese students since both had equal levels of challenges in their academic writing. Data was collected from different faculties and departments in the Universities.
The questions were framed after reviewing existing literatures over the same aiming to explore the difficulties that Chinese students experience in academic writing in order to develop viable conclusions and recommendations (Coolican 2014). Chinese students learning in UK Universities completed the questionnaires. From the data obtained via the questionnaires, the investigator conducted simple statistics to evaluate the main difficulties that these students experience in their academic writing.
Data entry and Analysis
All the data collected through the research instruments were edited for completeness, readability and consistency. Some of the errors that occurred when answering the question in the questionnaires were checked and revised as appropriate (Coolican 2014). Similarly, mistakes committed by the researcher when conducting the focus group discussion were corrected suitably. Additionally, the investigator included all the crucial information, which were lacking from the questionnaires because of the interviewee failing to answer the questions completely. The data was then coded before being entered into a computer having Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 software. Univariate analysis was first performed in the process of identifying various research outcome proportions (Robson 2011). These included the circumstances when Chinese students faced difficulties in academic writing such as when writing argumentative essays, doing analytical assignment and making presentations.
The first phase of analysis of data was followed by the subsequent phase in which the association between independent variables and dependent variables were done (Flick 2015). However, data gathered through in-depth interviews from senior lecturers and other members of teaching fraternity were transcribed, read several times, and their themes were thereafter coded with regard to the objectives of the study (Punch 2013). Hypotheses were then tested to determine if there was a significant association between Chinese cultures of learning and various difficulties they experienced in academic writing in UK Universities.
Validity and reliability of the study
The validity and reliability of the research are very important factors that should be taken into considerations when conducting studies. The validity of the study refers to the ability of the research instruments to measure effectively what they were supposed to measure (Coolican 2014). On the other hand, reliability is defined as the extent into which a given study instruments are stable and consistent, even when the same techniques are repeated a number of times. The main responsibility of reliability in a study is to reduce bias and errors that might be encountered in the process of data collection (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014).
The validity of this study was guaranteed through a number of activities. First, the researcher properly designed the questionnaires since it was a key research instrument for data collection in the study. In connections with other instruments for data collection, pre-test was first conducted for the questionnaires to maximize their relevancy, preciseness and clarity in answering the required research questions (Taylor, Bogdan and DeVault 2015). All ambiguous questions and those that lacked clear objectives were replaced as necessary. In this regard, during the pilot study, the study reliability was established. The researcher made sure there was consistency of the data gathered from the interviews and questionnaires (Flick 2015). The interviewer took necessary measures to ensure that the reliability of the instruments was guaranteed. Therefore, the researcher used a language that the interviewees could understand during the collection of data (Crano, Brewer and Lac 2014). In addition, the researcher established a proper introduction to assist in explaining the purpose of the study at the beginning of every session.
Nonetheless, research experts such as course supervisors were frequently consulted at every step of the study for criticism and corrections on the instruments for data collections. The main aim was to ensure that the study findings truly reflected the difficulties that Chinese students face in academic writing, especially in UK Universities (Taylor, Bogdan and DeVault 2015). It also ensured that results of similar findings could be obtained even if the study was conducted by a different researcher or at different time as long as all other factors in this study are kept constant.
Ethical considerations
The researcher sought permission from the University Research Ethics Committee before the commencement of this study. In this regard, the research only progressed after the University Ethical Committee issued an ethical clearance certificate related to the topic of this study. Prior to the participation in the study, the respondents were duly informed about the fact that the study was purely for academic purpose (Miller, Birch, Mauthner and Jessop eds. 2012). Similarly, they were notified that it was not compulsory for them to comment on the topic. In every questionnaire, an explanation was given about the anonymity of the answers and a reassurance that these responses would only be used for statistical analysis in the Research Method module. Therefore, they only participated in the study after giving an informed consent hence they engaged in the research voluntarily (Miller, Birch, Mauthner and Jessop eds. 2012). The consent highlight the purpose of research and what data collected will be used for. Furthermore, the participants were allowed to withdraw from the study at any time. Most importantly, they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. All participants consented to completing the questionnaires. All completed questionnaires were fully confidential and anonymous. The participants were also guaranteed that their answers would only be used for academic work, hence would not be victimised (Miller, Birch, Mauthner and Jessop eds. 2012). More significantly, the researcher maintained high standards of anonymity, confidentiality and privacy for the data collected.
Limitations
The study was a post-graduate research, hence it had some time constraints since it had to be completed within a year. In addition, at post-graduate level the researchers knowledge and skills was developing but knowledge and kills taught on the advanced research design were incorporated (Creswell 2013). This ensured that required data analysis and synthesizing skills were utilized to produce appropriate academic work.
References
Babbie, E.R., 2015. The practice of social research. Nelson Education.
Bernard, H.R. and Bernard, H.R., 2012. Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Sage.
Coolican, H., 2014. Research methods and statistics in psychology. Psychology Press.
Crano, W.D., Brewer, M.B. and Lac, A., 2014. Principles and methods of social research. Routledge.
Creswell, J.W., 2013. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.
Denscombe, M., 2014. The good research guide: for small-scale social research projects. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Flick, U., 2015. Introducing research methodology: A beginner’s guide to doing a research project. Sage.
Hesse-Biber, S.N. and Johnson, R.B. eds., 2015. The Oxford handbook of multimethod and mixed methods research inquiry. Oxford University Press.
Miller, T., Birch, M., Mauthner, M. and Jessop, J. eds., 2012. Ethics in qualitative research. Sage.
Punch, K.F., 2013. Introduction to social research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Sage.
Robson, C., 2011. Real world research: a resource for users of social research methods in applied settings. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Saunders, M.N., 2011. Research methods for business students, 5/e. Pearson Education India.
Silverman, D. ed., 2016. Qualitative research. Sage.
Taylor, S.J., Bogdan, R. and DeVault, M., 2015. Introduction to qualitative research methods: A guidebook and resource. John Wiley & Sons.
Tuckman, B.W. and Harper, B.E., 2012. Conducting educational research. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Vogt, W., 2011. Quantitative research methods. London: SAGE.
Appendices One: Questionnaire
My name is ___________. I am doing a study on the difficulties that Chinese students have in academic writing. I would like to assure you that the study maintain high standards of anonymity, confidentiality and privacy. Therefore, information that you will provide will be strictly used for academic work and will remain confidential. I urge you to provide honest responses to the questions.
If you agree to participate in this study kindly, sign the consent paper below.
Signature: _____________
Date……………………
SECTION ONE: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
(Circle the correct answer/fill in space provided)
1.1 Age of the student 16-20
21-25
26-30
31 and above 1.2 Which Degree are you currently studying? Undergraduate
Masters
Doctoral 1.3 What is your gender? 1) Male
2) Female Section Two: The difficulties that Chinese students face on the academic writing
2.1 Do you have trouble in academic writing in your current University? 1) Yes
2) No 2.2 What is your opinion about the differences of styles of teaching and learning between China and UK? Opinion…………………….. 2.3 At what level have you experienced challenges in language proficiency in your academic writing? Challenge…………
Example ……….
2.4 Have you ever had trouble in terms of clarity of information in academic writing in your current institution? Yes
No 2.5 Do you experience challenges when organizing your arguments logically when writing academic work? Yes
No
2.6 Do you have challenges in use of English vocabularies and grammar when writing academic essays? Yes
No 2.7 Do you have other challenges that affect your ability to present ideas in your academic work? 1) Yes
2) No
2.8 Which is the greatest difficulty that you ever faced in academic writing in Western system of education? _________ 2.9 Explain the your answer above Reason________ 2.10 Do you believe that Chinese academic culture affected your ability to adapt to western culture of learning? 1) Yes
2) No
3) No idea 2.11 The academic culture differences between China and Western system of education contribute to difficulties that Chinese students face in academic writing. 1) Strongly agree
2) Agree
3) Not sure
4) Disagree
5) Strongly disagree 2.12 Do challenges in your academic writing affect your social life in the university? Yes
No APPENDICES 2: Interview
What inspired you to study in the UK?
____________________________________________________________________
Explain some of the challenges in terms of proficiency of English language affected Chinese students in their academic writing. _____________________________________________________________________
What are the major differences in terms of learning and teaching practices and styles between China and the UK? _____________________________________________________________________
How often do these students face difficulties when writing essays, dissertations or coursework? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(a) Can you suggest the main reason behind the challenges of academic writing among Chinese students in the UK
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Suggest some recommendations
(i) __________________
(ii) _________________
(iii) _________________